The eastern border of the Indus Valley civilization extended up to Alamgirpur in the Ganga Valley.
Town culture developed during the Indus Valley civilization around 2600-1900 BCE.
The Rig Veda was written between 1500-1200 BCE.
Satyameva Jayate was taken from the Mundaka Upanishad.
The term 'unity in diversity' was established in Jawaharlal Nehru's book "The Discovery of India".
Greek-Roman techniques were used in the Gandhara school of sculpture.
The famous book on political science is Kautilya's "Arthashastra".
Natyasastra was written between 200 BCE and 200 CE.
There are approximately 6000 slokas in the Natyashastra.
Heraka is a religious reform movement among the Zeme Naga tribe of Northeast India.
The Hornbill festival is named after the hornbill bird, which is revered by the Naga tribes.
Chapehar Kut belongs to the state of Mizoram.
Mizo means "highlander" or "people of the hills".
Meghalaya has a matriarchal society, particularly among the Khasi and Garo tribes.
The main theme of Manipuri dance is devotion to Lord Krishna and stories from Vaishnavism.
The ancient name of Assam was Kamarupa or Pragjyotishpur.
Assam is considered to be derived from the Bodo word "Ha-Cham" meaning "low or uneven land".
Charyapada is the earliest known collection of mystical poems in the Assamese, Bengali, and Odia languages.
Charyapada was written between the 8th and 12th centuries CE.
Madhab Kandali translated the Saptakanda Ramayana under the patronage of Mahamanikya, the Baraha king.
Bhattadeva was the first to introduce prose literature in Assamese.
Zikir and Zari were composed by Ajan Fakir (also known as Ajan Peer).
Ajan Peer was a Sufi saint and poet who came to Assam in the 17th century.
Ajan Peer came to Assam around the mid-17th century (approximately 1630).
The stone gate of Da-Parbatia was made during the 5th-6th century CE.
The Changrung Phukan was responsible for supervising boat building and river transport in the Ahom administration.
Pratima Barua Pandey received the Padma Shri award for her contribution to folk songs.
The first news magazine of Assam was "Arunodoi".
The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya is part of the Austric ethnic group.
Arthashastra - Kautilya; Hashtrvidyarnava - Sukumar Barkath; Kirtan - Sankardev; Naamghosa - Madhavdev; Chordhora aru Pimpara Goshowa - Lakshminath Bezbaroa; Kaliya Daman - Ram Saraswati; Ramvijoy - Rudra Kandali; Katha Geeta - Bhattadeva; Rajtarangini - Kalhana; Bharat Sambhed - Anandaram Dhekial Phukan.
Two foreign communities that came to India after the 6th century were:
Two statues used for worshipping discovered during the Indus Valley civilization are:
Two important contributions of the Austrics to Indian culture are:
India's geography has created cultural diversity through:
The four Sambitas of the Vedas are:
The 12th rock edict of Ashoka emphasizes religious tolerance by:
Multiculturalism refers to:
Ancient Indian culture can be divided into:
Two prominent scientists in ancient India were:
Two important medical books from ancient India are:
Two Mughal emperors who patronized arts were:
Two pictorial books written on Sanchipat (traditional Assamese manuscript) are:
The two painters of Hastibidyarnava were:
Jhum cultivation, also known as shifting cultivation, is:
Zeng Bihu is:
The two main divisions of Ojhapali are:
Two prominent philosophers of ancient India were:
Two important historical texts from the Ahom era are:
Two homogenous festivals of Bihu celebrated in lower Assam are:
Two folk dances from Darrang district of Assam are:
The main ethnic groups of India include:
Three factors creating unity in India's cultural diversity are:
The main divisions of Indian architecture are:
Three UNESCO World Heritage architectural sites in India are:
Indian sculptures mainly featured:
The three main styles of Indian sculptures are:
Three pictorial books from the Mughal age are:
The six limbs (Shadanga) of Indian painting according to ancient texts are:
Three places in India with ancient wall paintings are:
The culture of Yoga in India:
The first seven days of Rongali Bihu are known as:
The main subject matters of Kamrupi and Goalparia folk songs include:
Three books mentioning ancient names of Assam are:
India's multiculturalism has deep historical roots and has developed through various phases. The Indus Valley Civilization showed early cultural diversity with trade connections to Mesopotamia. The Vedic period saw the mingling of Aryan and indigenous cultures. Later, empires like the Mauryas and Guptas patronized diverse religious traditions including Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. The medieval period witnessed the synthesis of Hindu and Islamic cultures, creating new architectural, literary, and artistic forms. Colonial rule introduced Western education and institutions while the freedom movement united diverse groups against common oppression. Post-independence, India's constitution recognized this diversity through secularism, linguistic states, and cultural rights. Today, India's multiculturalism is maintained through democratic institutions, cultural exchanges, and celebration of diverse festivals and traditions across communities.
This statement highlights the foundational role of Sanskrit literature in shaping Indian civilization. Sanskrit was not just a language but the medium through which India's philosophical, scientific, and cultural knowledge was preserved and transmitted. The Vedas contain the earliest expressions of Indian thought on cosmology, ethics, and spirituality. Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata established cultural ideals and moral frameworks that continue to influence Indian society. Scientific texts in Sanskrit made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and political science. Sanskrit literature also developed sophisticated aesthetic theories in works like Natyashastra. The language served as a unifying factor across diverse regions, with scholars from different parts of India contributing to its literature. Even after classical Sanskrit declined, its influence persisted through vernacular languages that borrowed vocabulary and literary forms, ensuring the continuity of Indian cultural consciousness.
India has been the birthplace and nurturing ground for several major religious traditions. Hinduism, with its diverse practices, philosophical systems, and textual traditions like Vedas and Upanishads, forms the majority religion. Buddhism and Jainism emerged in the 6th century BCE as reform movements emphasizing non-violence and renunciation. Sikhism developed in the 15th century combining elements of Hindu and Islamic mysticism. India also welcomed and assimilated foreign religions - Islam arrived in the 7th century and developed distinct Indian forms, while Christianity has ancient roots through St. Thomas's arrival in Kerala. Zoroastrianism and Judaism found refuge in India when their followers faced persecution elsewhere. This religious diversity has created a unique culture of pluralism where different faiths coexist and influence each other. Religious festivals, pilgrimage sites, and shared spiritual practices across communities demonstrate India's enduring tradition of religious harmony despite occasional conflicts.
The Northeast region of India has developed both common and separate identities through complex historical and geographical processes. Geographically isolated by mountains and connected to mainland India only by a narrow corridor, the region developed distinct cultural patterns. Ethnically, the Northeast is predominantly Mongoloid with tribal communities practicing unique traditions, unlike the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian majorities in mainland India. Colonial administration treated the region differently, creating excluded and partially excluded areas that limited integration. Post-independence, separate statehood movements based on ethnic and linguistic identities led to the creation of seven sister states and Sikkim. Common challenges like underdevelopment, insurgency, and migration have created a shared Northeastern identity. However, each state maintains strong separate identities - Assamese, Naga, Mizo, Manipuri etc. - with distinct languages, customs, and historical narratives. This dual identity of being both Indian and distinctly Northeastern continues to shape the region's politics and cultural expressions.
Srimanta Sankardev (1449-1568) was a monumental figure who transformed Assamese culture and literature. He established the Ekasarana Dharma (devotion to one God) movement, making spiritual practices accessible to all regardless of caste or gender. His literary contributions include the Kirtan Ghosa, containing devotional songs and philosophical discourses that became the spiritual guide for generations. He composed numerous Borgeets (devotional songs) that enriched Assamese music. Sankardev introduced Ankiya Naat (one-act plays) combining dance, music, and drama to convey religious messages, creating a new theatrical tradition. He translated the Bhagavata Purana into Assamese, making Sanskrit texts available to common people. His institutions called Satras became centers of cultural preservation that continue to promote art, music, and literature. By using colloquial language in his works, he standardized and enriched the Assamese language. Sankardev's holistic approach integrated spirituality with cultural expression, creating a renaissance that shaped Assamese identity for centuries.
Madhabdev (1489-1596), the principal disciple of Sankardev, played a crucial role in consolidating and expanding the neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam. His most significant contribution is the Naam Ghosa, also called the "Hazar Ghosa," which systematically presents the philosophy of Ekasarana Dharma and is considered second only to the Kirtan Ghosa in importance. Madhabdev composed numerous Borgeets that complemented Sankardev's musical repertoire and expanded the tradition of devotional music. He wrote several Ankiya Naat including "Chordhara" and "Pimpara Guchowa" that continued the dramatic tradition established by his guru. After Sankardev's death, Madhabdev provided leadership to the movement, establishing new Satras and guiding the community through a period of potential fragmentation. His literary works in Brajabuli and Assamese demonstrated linguistic versatility while maintaining the spiritual essence of the tradition. Madhabdev's emphasis on strict adherence to the principles laid down by Sankardev helped preserve the purity of the movement while allowing for organic growth, ensuring its continuity as a living tradition in Assam.
The Vaishnava Satras established by Sankardev and his disciples have been instrumental in preserving and developing Assamese culture for over five centuries. These monastic institutions served as centers of learning where arts, literature, and philosophy flourished. The Satras preserved manuscripts and traditional knowledge through systematic copying and teaching. They developed distinctive art forms like Sattriya dance, which was recognized as a classical dance form of India in 2000. The Satras maintained rich musical traditions through Borgeet and other devotional music forms. They promoted craft traditions like mask-making, manuscript painting, and textile weaving. As community centers, Satras organized festivals and cultural events that brought people together. During political turmoil, they served as sanctuaries preserving cultural identity. The Satra system also contributed to social reform by challenging caste hierarchies and promoting egalitarian values. Even today, Satras continue to be living repositories of Assamese culture, adapting to modern times while maintaining traditional practices, thus ensuring the continuity of a unique cultural heritage that distinguishes Assam within the Indian cultural landscape.
Modern Assamese culture and literature developed through interaction with colonial education, nationalist movements, and global influences while maintaining its distinct identity. The 19th century saw a cultural renaissance with the establishment of printing presses and publications like "Arunodoi" (1846) that standardized the Assamese language. The American Baptist Mission played a significant role in developing Assamese prose through translations and original works. The Jonaki era (1889) marked the beginning of Romanticism in Assamese literature with writers like Lakshminath Bezbaroa, Chandra Kumar Agarwalla, and Hemchandra Goswami. The freedom movement inspired patriotic literature while also prompting cultural introspection. Post-independence, Assamese literature addressed issues of identity, migration, and social change. The Assam Movement (1979-85) profoundly influenced cultural expressions, leading to more politically engaged art and literature. Contemporary Assamese culture balances traditional forms like Bihu and Sattriya with modern expressions in cinema, music, and digital media. This ongoing synthesis of tradition and modernity, local and global, continues to shape a dynamic cultural landscape that remains rooted in Assam's unique historical experience while engaging with contemporary challenges.
Bihu has been central to the development and expression of Assamese cultural identity through its deep connection with agrarian life, community bonding, and artistic traditions. The three Bihu festivals - Bohag (Rongali), Magh (Bhogali), and Kati (Kongali) - correspond to the agricultural cycle, reflecting the intimate relationship between nature and culture in Assam. Bihu songs (Bihu Geet) have preserved folk musical traditions and poetic forms, with lyrics that encompass love, nature, social commentary, and daily life. The Bihu dance, with its vibrant movements and colorful costumes, has evolved from rural celebrations to a recognized cultural symbol performed globally. Bihu has historically transcended barriers of caste, class, and religion, creating a shared cultural space for diverse communities in Assam. In the modern era, Bihu has adapted to urban settings while maintaining its essential character, with community organizations promoting its practice among younger generations. The festival has also become a platform for addressing contemporary social issues through thematic performances. As both a living tradition and a symbol of Assamese identity, Bihu continues to unite people while allowing for creative innovation, ensuring its relevance in a changing society.
The Ahom rulers, who governed Assam for nearly six centuries (1228-1826), made profound contributions to the development of Assamese culture through state patronage, administrative systems, and cultural synthesis. They established a unique administrative structure called the Paik system that organized society for both military and economic purposes. The Ahoms commissioned the writing of Buranjis, historical chronicles that provide detailed accounts of their rule and preserve Assam's history. They promoted architectural innovations, building terracotta temples, stone bridges, and tanks that combined local styles with influences from other regions. The Ahom court patronized literature in both Assamese and Tai languages, facilitating cultural exchange. They maintained religious tolerance, supporting both Hindu institutions and their ancestral Tai beliefs, which enabled cultural synthesis. The Ahoms developed sophisticated water management systems and agricultural techniques that supported economic prosperity. Their military organization successfully resisted Mughal expansion, preserving Assam's political independence and distinct cultural identity. Even after the kingdom fell, Ahom cultural influences persisted in administrative practices, art forms, and social customs, creating a composite culture that remains fundamental to contemporary Assamese identity and distinguishing it from other regional cultures in India.
The Vedic culture, spanning from approximately 1500 to 600 BCE, laid the philosophical and social foundations of Indian civilization. The four Vedas - Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva - contain hymns, rituals, and early philosophical speculations that shaped Hindu religious thought. Concepts like Dharma (duty/righteousness), Karma (action and consequence), and Moksha (liberation) originated in Vedic literature and became central to Indian philosophy. The Vedic social structure, though initially fluid, eventually crystallized into the varna system that influenced social organization for centuries. Vedic rituals and sacrifices established patterns of worship that evolved into temple traditions. The Upanishads, composed towards the end of the Vedic period, developed profound metaphysical concepts like Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (soul) that influenced all subsequent Indian philosophical systems. Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, became the medium for intellectual discourse across South Asia. Thus, Vedic culture provided the bedrock upon which later developments in religion, philosophy, literature, and social organization were built, creating continuities that persist in modern Indian culture despite numerous transformations.
Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE, profoundly influenced Indian culture through its philosophical innovations, ethical teachings, and artistic contributions. Buddha's teachings on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path offered a systematic approach to addressing human suffering that appealed across social divisions. The Buddhist emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa), compassion, and ethical conduct influenced moral frameworks beyond its immediate followers. Buddhism challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy by rejecting caste hierarchy and emphasizing personal spiritual effort over ritualism. The religion patronized by emperors like Ashoka spread across Asia, making India a cultural exporter. Buddhist monasteries became centers of learning that developed sophisticated philosophical systems and preserved knowledge. The tradition made significant contributions to art and architecture, with stupas, chaityas, and viharas displaying distinctive styles. Buddhist universities like Nalanda and Vikramshila attracted scholars from across Asia, facilitating intellectual exchange. Though Buddhism declined in its land of origin, its influences permeated Hindu traditions, and its revival in modern times continues to contribute to India's religious pluralism and cultural heritage.
Islam's arrival in India beginning in the 7th century initiated a prolonged process of cultural interaction that significantly enriched Indian civilization. Sufi saints played a crucial role in this synthesis through their message of universal love and tolerance, establishing khanqahs that became centers of spiritual and cultural exchange. Indo-Islamic architecture created magnificent structures like the Qutub Minar, Taj Mahal, and various mosques and tombs that blended Persian, Central Asian, and Indian elements. Islamic rulers patronized literature in both Persian and regional languages, leading to works like Amir Khusro's poetry that celebrated cultural hybridity. The Bhakti and Sufi movements influenced each other, creating shared devotional traditions that transcended religious boundaries. Administrative systems introduced by Muslim rulers, including revenue collection and legal frameworks, influenced governance patterns. Culinary traditions saw the integration of Persian and Central Asian dishes with local practices, enriching Indian cuisine. Art forms like miniature painting developed distinctive Indo-Islamic styles. This centuries-long interaction created a composite culture that remains fundamental to India's pluralistic identity, demonstrating the possibility of diverse traditions coexisting and mutually enriching each other.
India's diverse tribal communities have made substantial contributions to the development of Indian culture despite often being marginalized in mainstream historical narratives. Tribal groups preserved ancient knowledge systems related to forestry, agriculture, and medicine that have gained recognition for their ecological wisdom. Their artistic traditions, including Warli painting, Gond art, and various textile and craft techniques, have enriched India's cultural heritage. Tribal languages have contributed to linguistic diversity and preserved oral literatures containing myths, folklore, and historical memories. Musical forms and instruments originating in tribal communities have been incorporated into broader Indian cultural expressions. Tribal resistance movements against colonial and post-colonial exploitation have strengthened democratic values and environmental consciousness. Traditional governance systems in tribal societies, often based on consensus and community participation, offer alternative models of social organization. The constitutional recognition of tribal rights and cultural autonomy reflects their significant place in India's multicultural framework. As repositories of alternative worldviews and sustainable practices, tribal cultures continue to offer valuable insights for addressing contemporary challenges of development, environmental conservation, and cultural preservation in modern India.
British colonial rule (1757-1947) had complex and contradictory impacts on the development of Indian culture, simultaneously disrupting traditional structures while introducing new forms of cultural expression. The introduction of English education created a Western-educated elite who became mediators between Indian and European thought, leading to what is often called the Indian Renaissance. Printing technology facilitated the spread of vernacular literature and newspapers, enabling new forms of public discourse. Archaeological surveys initiated by the British led to the rediscovery of India's ancient past, though often interpreted through colonial frameworks. The establishment of museums, universities, and research institutions created new spaces for knowledge production. Colonial administrative practices, including census operations and ethnographic classifications, rigidified social identities in ways that continue to influence contemporary politics. The freedom movement against British rule itself became a powerful cultural force, generating patriotic literature, art, and symbols that shaped modern Indian nationalism. While colonial policies often undermined traditional industries and knowledge systems, the resistance they provoked strengthened cultural self-awareness and the revaluation of indigenous traditions, creating the paradoxical situation where colonialism both disrupted and galvanized Indian cultural development.
Mahatma Gandhi's contribution to Indian culture extends far beyond his political leadership, fundamentally influencing social values, cultural practices, and national identity. Gandhi reconceptualized Indian nationalism as inclusive of all religious communities and social groups, promoting religious harmony as essential to Indian culture. His emphasis on Swadeshi (self-reliance) revitalized traditional crafts like khadi spinning, transforming them into symbols of national pride and economic independence. Gandhi's philosophy of Satyagraha (truth-force) and Ahimsa (non-violence) provided ethical foundations for political action that resonated with India's spiritual traditions while addressing contemporary challenges. He championed social reforms, particularly against untouchability, arguing that true Swaraj (self-rule) required the elimination of social discrimination. Gandhi's simple lifestyle and emphasis on voluntary poverty challenged materialistic values and highlighted the dignity of labor. His concept of Sarvodaya (welfare of all) envisioned an alternative development model based on village self-sufficiency and environmental sustainability. By integrating spiritual values with political and social action, Gandhi created a distinctive approach to modern life that continues to influence Indian cultural discourse and social movements, making him perhaps the most significant figure in shaping modern India's cultural self-understanding.
Jyotiprasad Agarwalla (1903-1951) was a multifaceted cultural icon who revolutionized Assamese arts in the modern period. He is celebrated as the founder of Assamese cinema, having produced, directed, and scored India's third talkie and Assam's first feature film "Joymoti" in 1935, which pioneered realistic treatment of historical themes. As a composer, he created a new genre of Assamese songs that blended folk melodies with sophisticated arrangements, with timeless compositions like "Biswo Bijoyi Naujowan" and "Luitor Parore Ami Deka Lora" becoming cultural anthems. His plays, particularly "Sonit Kunwari" and "Karengar Ligiri," modernized Assamese theater by incorporating contemporary social concerns. Jyotiprasad was actively involved in the freedom movement, for which he was imprisoned, and he infused his cultural work with nationalist sentiment. He established the first artist's cooperative in Assam, "Chitraban," to promote collective cultural production. His literary works, including poetry and essays, addressed issues of identity, social reform, and cultural revival. Through his integrated approach to various art forms and his commitment to cultural authenticity, Jyotiprasad laid the foundations for modern Assamese cultural expression while maintaining connections with traditional roots.
Bishnuprasad Rabha (1909-1969), revered as "Kalaguru" (Master of Arts), was a revolutionary artist who dedicated his life to creating a people's culture rooted in Assam's folk traditions. Rabha approached art as a means of social transformation, combining artistic excellence with progressive politics. He mastered diverse art forms including music, dance, drama, painting, and sculpture, often blending them in innovative performances. His musical compositions, drawing from Bihu, Bodo, and other folk traditions, celebrated the lives of working people while critiquing social inequality. Rabha revived and reimagined traditional dance forms, creating new choreographies that expressed contemporary concerns. He was a pioneering figure in Assamese modern theater, directing and acting in plays that addressed social issues. As a visual artist, he created sculptures and paintings that depicted tribal life and folk motifs. Rabha actively participated in the tribal autonomy movements and worked to document and preserve indigenous cultures. His concept of "Bhakhat" (people's culture) emphasized art's role in social liberation and cultural自信. Through his multidisciplinary approach and commitment to cultural democracy, Bishnuprasad Rabha expanded the boundaries of Assamese cultural expression and inspired generations of artists to engage with social realities.
Dr. Bhupen Hazarika (1926-2011) was a cultural colossus whose work transcended regional boundaries while remaining deeply rooted in Assamese identity. Through his powerful baritone voice and poetic lyrics, he gave musical expression to the joys, struggles, and aspirations of ordinary people. Hazarika's songs, drawing from folk traditions while incorporating modern arrangements, addressed universal themes of humanity, peace, and social justice, making him the "Bard of Brahmaputra." His early exposure to Paul Robeson influenced his conception of music as a force for social change. As a filmmaker, he produced award-winning movies that explored contemporary social issues with artistic sensitivity. Hazarika played a crucial role in popularizing Assamese culture nationally and internationally through his performances across India and abroad. His leadership in cultural institutions helped professionalize the arts in Assam. During periods of political turmoil, his songs became anthems of peace and reconciliation. Hazarika's ability to synthesize diverse musical influences - from folk to Western classical - created a distinctive sound that appealed across generations. By maintaining his artistic integrity while achieving mainstream success, he demonstrated the possibility of creating meaningful popular art, leaving a legacy that continues to inspire cultural production in Assam and beyond.
Modern Bihu has evolved from a rural agricultural festival into a powerful symbol of Assamese cultural identity that adapts to changing social contexts while preserving core elements. The institutionalization of Bihu through organized competitions and stage performances has professionalized its presentation while raising artistic standards. Urban Bihu celebrations, beginning in the 1950s, have created new spaces for cultural expression in cities where diverse communities participate. The festival has incorporated contemporary issues, with Bihu songs addressing social concerns like environmental conservation, women's rights, and political awareness. Modern media, particularly television and digital platforms, have amplified Bihu's reach, creating both opportunities for wider appreciation and challenges of commercialization. The professional Bihu bands that emerged in the late 20th century have developed sophisticated musical arrangements while maintaining traditional instrumentation. Bihu has also become an economic activity, supporting artisans, musicians, and performers. Despite these transformations, community participation remains central, with neighborhood Bihu committees ensuring local ownership. This dynamic evolution demonstrates Bihu's resilience as a living tradition that continuously reinvents itself while maintaining cultural continuity, making it perhaps the most potent symbol of Assamese identity in the modern era.